Jujutsu Becomes Judo
This article is written by Jigoro Kano, the founder of Judo - 1882. From his book entitled “Kodokan Judo”, reprinted by Kodansha International Ltd., 1986
Most people are no doubt familiar with the words jujutsu and judo, but how many can distinguish between them?
Many martial arts were practiced in Japan during its feudal age: the use of the lance, archery, swordsmanship and many more. Jujutsu was one such art. Also called taijutsu and yawara, it was a system of attack that involved throwing, hitting, kicking, stabbing, slashing, choking, bending and twisting limbs, pinning an opponent, and defenses against these attacks. Although jujutsu's techniques were known from the earliest times, it was not until the latter half of the sixteenth century that jujutsu was practiced and taught systematically. During the Edo period (1603-1868,) --- Yoshin Ryu Jujitsu(1671)--- it developed into a complex art taught by the masters of a number of schools. In my youth I studied jujutsu under many eminent masters. Their vast knowledge, the fruit of years of diligent research and rich experience, was of great value to me. At that time, each man presented his art as a collection of techniques. When I encountered differences in the teaching of techniques, I often found myself at a loss to know which was correct. This led me to look for an underlying principle in jujutsu, one that applied when one hit an opponent as well as when one threw him. After a thorough study of the subject, I discerned an all-pervasive principle: to make the most efficient use of mental and physical energy. With this principle in mind, I again reviewed all the methods of attack and defense I had learned, retaining only those that were in accordance with the principle. Those not in accord with it I rejected, and in their place I substituted techniques in which the principle was correctly applied. The resulting body of technique, which I named judo to distinguish it from its predecessor, is what is taught at the Kodokan.
The word jujutsu and judo are each written with two Chinese characters. The ju in both is the same and means "gentleness" or "giving way." The meaning of jutsu is "art, practice," and do means "principle" or "way," the Way being the concept of life itself. Jujutsu may be translated as "the gentle art," judo as "the Way of gentleness," with the implication of first giving way to ultimately gain victory. The Kodokan is, literally, "the school for studying the Way." As we shall see in the next chapter, judo is more than an art of attack and defense. It is a way of life.
To understand what is meant by gentleness or giving way, let us say a man is standing before me whose strength is ten, and that my own strength is but seven. If he pushes me as hard as he can, I am sure to be pushed back or knocked down, even if I resist with all my might. This is opposing strength with strength. But if instead of opposing him I give way to the extent he has pushed, withdrawing my body and maintaining my balance, my opponent will lose his balance. Weakened by his awkward position, he will be unable to use all his strength. It will have fallen to three. Because I retain my balance, my strength remains at seven. Now I am stronger than my opponent and can defeat him by using only half my strength, keeping the other half available for some other purpose. Even if you are stronger than your opponent, it is better first to give way. By doing so you conserve energy while exhausting your opponent. This is but one example of how you can defeat an opponent by giving way.
Using the principle of yawara, even a small person can throw a large one.
It was because so many techniques made use of this principle that the art was named jujutsu.
Let us look at a few other examples of the feats that can be accomplished with jujutsu.
Suppose a man is standing before me. Like a log on end, he can be pushed off balance-frontward or backward-with a single finger. If at the moment he leans forward, I apply my arm to his back and quickly slip my hip in front of his, my hip becomes a fulcrum. To throw the man to the ground, even if he greatly outweighs me, all I need do is twist my hip slightly or pull on his arm or sleeve.
Let us say I attempt to break a man's balance to the front, but that he steps forward with one foot. I can still throw him easily by merely pressing the ball of my foot just below the Achilles' tendon of his advancing leg a split second before he places his full weight on that foot. This is a good example of the efficient use of energy. With only slight effort, I can defeat an opponent of considerable strength.
What if a man were to rush up and push me? If instead of pushing back, I were to take hold of his arms or his collar with both hands, place the ball of one foot against his lower abdomen, straighten my leg and sit back, I could make him somersault over my head.
Or suppose that my opponent leans forward a bit and pushes me with one hand. This puts him off balance. If I grab him by the upper sleeve of his outstretched arm, pivot so that my back is close to his chest, clamp my free hand on his shoulder and suddenly bend over, he will go flying over my head and land flat on his back.
As these examples show, for the purpose of throwing an opponent the principle of leverage is sometimes more important than giving way. Jujutsu also includes other forms of direct attack, such as hitting, kicking and choking. In this respect, the "art of giving way" does not convey the true meaning. If we accept jujutsu as the art or practice of making the most efficient use of mental and physical energy, then we can think of judo as the way, the principle, of doing this, and we arrive at a true definition.
Randori and the Unification of Jujutsu Disciplines by the Kodokan
by Kosuke Nagaki, Assistant Professor
Hyogo Educational University
Introduction
Under bujutsu, it is basic criterion to question actual fighting performance capabilities as equal to its ability. The goal of this article is to clarify the birth of different jujutsu discipline and its branching out as well as to clarify the path to unification of such disciplines under the efforts of the Kodokan and explain the principle of free competition under the merit system as well as to further contemplate the reasons and meanings of randori.
Birth of different jujutsu disciplines and merit system
The basic forms of jujutsu disciplines were formed in Sengoku Era (between 1477 to 1573) and were further modified in the early stages of the Edo era (between 1600 to 1650). Such form, of disciplines (ryu), included Sekiguchi-ryu Takeuchi-ryu Yoshin-ryu and Kito-ryu and were widely utilized by the different clans the Edo era and were continued to the Meiji era ( around 1868). These disciplines are considered the main original forms of jujutsu. Master Jigoro Kano whom established the Kodokan in 1868, studied Tenshinmayo-ryu and Kito-ryu which are a branch form of the Yoshin-ryu and from these two main disciplines he was able to learn the essence or jujutsu.
Ryu-ha (form of disciplines and group) is a formal organization and its main purpose is to access technique. Conditions for existence of such organizations can be described as: emergence of genius like expert or master, techniques are systematized, practice methods between teacher and student are established. Also the head of such a ryu-ha must obviously be a master in his technique and ability. Where disciples are to be ranked (rank documents issued) the disciples ability were considered first. Other than ability, other considerations were given to age, blood relation, obligation, contribution and donations.
The basis for selection under ability has basically ascended from the prior years or war between the different clans when actual battle did take place and where actual fighting ability was highly regarded as the basis of bujutsu. In addition, the originators of such disciplines as the Sekiguchi-ryu and Takeuchi-ryu as well as the other oriental discipline groups had always traveled throughout the country in search of the best talent and through such actual battles were able to further formalize the ryu-ha involved. As such, ability being the center of focus was natural.
Free competition between the different disciplines (ryu-ha)
Throughout the mid-Edo era, several ryu-ha's were formed into organizations as well as several branch disciplines. The social dynamics of the time for such an event to take place is said to be the structure of Bakuhan (Shogunate-Clan structure). Under this structure, the clan's military power was under control and supervision of the shogunate, however such military strengths and methods were kept highly secret. As such, each clan was able to choose the discipline type of the bujutsu form, and the selected discipline was considered as belonging to the clan and not the individual. In addition, agreements of the bujutsu master and the clan were for only one generation and there were no guarantees that the clan would continue to use the same discipline after the agreement was fulfilled. In such conditions it was impossible for one type of discipline to spread throughout the country and for the most part, one clan/one discipline was the norm and this trend spread rapidly. Reportedly, fifty-eight clans and the type of discipline utilized, found that eighty percent of the clans were the sole users of one type of discipline from the sixtyeight types available at the time.
The clan leader obviously searched for a highly skilled master (teacher) for his clan, and the jujutsu master had to market his technique as original and superior to others. It is considered that as a jujutsu-master being contracted by a clan had the most monetary stability and status and such a position was sought out by most jujutsu masters of that time.
From such climates free competition between different disciplines occurred and from the original few types of discipline that were available in the early Edo era (1600-1650), the number grew to approximately 200 discipline types by the end of the Edo era (1800-1868). It is said that over 750 discipline types existed for Kenjutsu (sword display). Reportedly, most of the new disciplines were for one clan only, however, all the new disciplines were bi-products of the original discipline and its influence was obvious. Where they did not give such discipline the original name and rather gave it a name of its own as well as its own structure is an example of the jujutsu climate of the time, where the original discipline was modified due to free will or by necessity.
As a matter of fact, frequently a dissatisfied highly ranked disciple would move away from the original discipline studied and take up a new discipline or make a new discipline and undertake action on his own. Especially during the mid Edo era, there were many jujutsu experts whom would study two or even three types of disciplines.
As for the masters of the several different disciplines, they always attempted to keep their form of discipline (technique and spirit) a secret and would force the discipline to secrecy as not to teach outside the discipline group. However such attempts would be only in form, and were not able to be actually enforced. Even on a personal level, the merit system would be in place and made the free competition flourish further.
Signs of consolidation of disciplines in the later stages of the Edo era
On the other hand, during the mid to late Edo era, known as the "tahei no yo" period, most bujutsu starts to depart from the actual fighting scene and would become more of an art form. Each group started to exemplify the need for spiritual principles, and for a short time enters a more extreme and self-satisfying era where technique based ability was less important.
However, in the later part of the Edo era, due to the threat from overseas and several riots from the farmers, the shogunate itself started to promote bujutsu and the discipline groups would start to reflect its own actual fighting capabilities once again. In such climate, interdiscipline matches would become popular. At the time, the technical contents of the jujutsu disciplines were basically taught and passed on by "Kata" (form). "Kata" was based on actual fighting techniques and were patterned and served well in the teachings between master and disciple. "Kata" utilized were dependent on the level of the disciple and for the advanced a high level "kata" could be taught and the master could know how far the disciple has progressed with this patterned "kata" method. In addition, this method was suited to leave such information to later generations in its original form. However, at times where "beauty" was pursued it became more artificial and this was considered dangerous as it would distance itself from the basic requirement of bujutsu which is actual fighting capability. As such. there were no alternative methods to determine which disciplines were superior other than the inter-discipline matches.
Many of the discipline groups had sworn their students not to engage in fighting with other discipline types. However, this only exemplifies the fact that there was lust for fighting other disciplines among the students. They would like to know their true capability by fighting other discipline groups.
With such events the basic "actual fighting capability" would return in the form of "inter-discipline matches" which fueled the free competition amongst the discipline types of that time. From the viewpoint of "actual fighting capability", consolidation of the overly fractionalized discipline types can be started to be seen.
Unification by Kodokan
When Kodokan Judo was established in 1877, it was one of the discipline forms in the world of jujutsu. From the end of the Edo era to the early parts of the Meiji era (circa 1850-1880) jujutsu as a whole was suffering. However the main discipline types still remained and the police as well as the town dojos (martial art halls) and schools each taught jujutsu on their own. The Kodokan taught mainly school students through its higher ranking disciples but were still on the level of other discipline groups as an organization. The greatest chance for the Kodokan to establish itself came when the "Dainihon Butokukai" (herein referred to as Butokukai) established in 1890, and its implementation of rules and regulations for the jujutsu matches in 1899 and regulations for "jujutsu-kata" established in 1906. Butokukai was established as the governing body of the different types of bujutsu by high ranking government officials, military personnel and policeman to "maintain the samurai spirit" in the Meiji era and the new government system it brought to that era. The Kodokan was an original member from the era and the commencement of the organization occurred in 1905, Master Kano received the degree of jujutsu master of the governing body after yoshinryu's Hidemi Tozuka and Shiten-ryu's Kumon Hoshino. He also acted as committee chairman of regulatory committee for the judging and regulation pursuant to the matches and kata disciplinary. In the committee the main ryu-ha and its masters were present and heated discussions took place but in the end, the methods that the Kodokan had already been utilizing were generally selected.
The main reason behind this is general acceptance was that master Kano was able to theoretically add value to jujutsu in a physical education form. In 1889, master Kano had already lectured on such contents at the Dainihon kyoikukai (Japan education committee) under the title of "Judo and its Educational Value".
It is also viewed that this lecture was in response to the ministry of education's adverse recommendation to the physical education board based on its studies of "The appropriateness of bujutsu being an educational material" which concluded that "bujutsu is unsuitable for school education material" in 1883. The lecture is separated into sections such as "Judo Physical Education", "How to Compete with Judo" and "Judo and Mental (Spiritual) Development". However, the Judo Physical Education section especially seeks new correlation's between judo, physiology and safety.
Butokukai from its conception had mainly recruited policeman as members, however after the initial years it changed its direction toward school related personnel. This was an effort to make bujutsu enter into the classes of physical education. In later years, Butokukai established "School of bujutsu" to build a basis for educational personnel. In summary, both the Kodokan and Butokukai were very similar to in its quest for jujutsu to become a modern sport in the new era. As it is well known, Master Kano was not only an established jujutsu expert, but also an elite who lead the educational and cultural changes of that time period. The Butokukai recognize Master Kano as the most appropriate selection to lead. As time progressed other famous jujutsu experts all agreed to master Kano's thoughts on Judo's acceptance as a modem physical educational sport and gradually were absorbed and unified under the master's vision. It can be said that under the stipulations and criterion under the government's organizing body Butokukai, the Kodokan unified the jujutsu sector of the organization.
Significance of randori under unification
In addition to the ability to stipulate theory, Kodokan judo actually integrates theory with actual performance (actual fighting) and this was its principle point. This is well displayed at the Kodokan's performance in the "randori method". Opponents each seeking to make "waza" (technique moves to each other. This randori was also utilized by other jujutsu disciplines but Kano's theory to randor was "safety", physical strength development and balanced development" as well as "enticing interest in the student". It is widely known that even as such. safety was especially prioritized and "atemi (hitting)" and "hand and toes and it joints" as well as "wrist and ankle" targeted "wazas (techniques)" were excluded. If there were a no-rule bujutsu match the loser would either be injured or in the worst case, even die. As such, a no-rule actual fighting would never be accepted in a physical educational structure. (By this stand point, the "kata" formed in the Edo era can be said to be useful.) In the lecture mentioned earlier, "Judo and its Educational Value", master Kano actually demonstrated in front of the attendees randori utilizing young men and said, "As you can see and understand, it is not dangerous and it is very good exercise for the body, and mind".
By these methods, the significance of randori is that it enabled the individual to test his actual fighting capabilities and techniques freely. In other words, randori guarantees "freedom" within the stipulated rules. This also has similarities of modern sports and its free competition style which were born and spread throughout the world by England in the later part of the 19th century. As Kangawa expresses "The conception of the Judo physical education method not only adds qualitative properties to jujutsu but also the physical randori method brought judo to the modern sporting competition scene. Hence, the development in Japan and internationalization of the Kodokan can be directly attributed to this reason." In summary, the unification of the different disciplines were made possible by making jujutsu a free competition sport, based on safety.
In fact, in the multi-discipline jujutsu matches where the Kodokan was competing, the randori really revealed its strength. For example, at the bujutsu competition held at the police headquarters in 1885, it is said that the Kodokan dominated the Tozuka-group Yoshin-ryu who were the main powerhouse at the time. These matches were held to determine the jujutsu master for the police headquarters as well as to determine the real ability of the different discipline types. According to the notes of Hajime Isogai, most of the "wazas" utilized in this tournament were ashibarai, kouchigari, hizaguruma. ouchigari and kaeshi waza, basically known as kowaza (small waza) and this light footed but perfected action dominated the osotogari and newaza utilized by the Tozuka group Yoshin ryu. It proved that not only tenacity but the fast body action and movement is the most required necessity for Kodokan Judo. The fast body action and movement can only be developed through free randori practice and this shows that the Kodokan had already been employing randori in its practice methods at that time.
In the later years, the Kodokan continues to demonstrate its dominance in the bujutsu matches held by the police headquarters, unfortunately the rules of such matches have never been made clear. The rules are clarified for the first time in 1899 when Butokukai rules and regulations are established and with similar stipulations, the Kodokan judo randori matches regulations in 1900. However. due to the matches in 1880. it was decided by either nagewaza (throwing techniques) or newaza (ground work techniques), it can be assumed that the dangerous "atemi waza" as well as the "kansetsu waza" (jointlocking techniques) were already excluded and more emphasis on safety had been in place. It is highly possible that the rules and regulations or modified version of the Kodokan's randori were utilized for such public matches as safety is the foremost important criteria of such events. As such, since the disciples of the Kodokan were already engaging in randori, they had the distinct advantage.
In this way, not only by theory, but also the randori methods of "actual fighting capability" of the Kodokan gradually gains acceptance and makes further advances to the unification of the jujutsu world.
Summary
As explained, the Kodokan's randori enabled the different types of disciplines to engage in matches and compete when Jujitsu was in its unification period and functionally served a major role. In addition, the basis was "safety", "enhancement of strength" and "interest" which are values required for modern sports. With randori the free competition principles of judo have been unified and are now spreading its stage to the international community and like other sports, are able to enjoy the everlasting free competition.
However, as we all know, the judo that Master Kano sought does not end with randori. The time has progressed from modern time to post modern and beginning with the financial world, all fields are now moving towards "Competition to Coexistence". This notion of coexistence is also expressed by Master Kano as "Jita Kyoei" (self/others coexist and flourish) in the judo language form, and this ideology should be utilized in modern judo.
On Jujutsu and its Modernization
by Kenji Tomiki
There are many kinds of Budo (martial arts) in Japan. In recent history, kendo and judo have been the major ones and, as Gakko Budo--martial arts systems taught as part of the PE curricula--they have been required courses in schools, including primary schools, since the Meiji period (1868-1912). And, as is well known, both kendo and judo incorporate competition and sparring. However, the training in ancient Budo consisted only of kata practice, the practice of forms and pre-arranged movements that one masters through numerous repetitions. Kendo and judo training were not kata alone. In order to make shiai (tournaments) possible, an etiquette and structure for competition was devised. I think that competition developed for two reasons, one philosophical and one practical. First, the saying "tournaments are possible" suits the expansive essence of budo. Second, the educational effect of tournaments is enormous.
Aikido is much the same as judo because the origins of both reside in the ancient schools of jujutsu. If we generally classify the kinds of techniques (waza) in the ancient schools of jujutsu, there are four categories:
Nage-waza (throwing techniques)
Katame-waza (locking techniques)
Atemi-waza (striking techniques)
Kansetsu-waza (joint techniques)
Among these, many nage-waza and some katame-waza have been collected into the system of training that is "competition judo" (judo kyogi), and various atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza have been collected into the system of training that is "competition aikido" (aikido kyogi).
Although one group of kansetsu-waza are included among the katame-waza of competition judo, the many varieties of kansetsu-waza (and their implementation) should be combined with the atemi-waza into a system of training so that these two groups of techniques will be sufficiently revitalized. Although the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza can be viewed as techniques that can inflict a severe injury on an opponent, if we study the principles of the martial arts well, we realize that they are exquisite techniques for toppling (taosu) or controlling (osaeru) an opponent without necessarily harming him. In the same way, the nage-waza and katame-waza of competition judo--in the way they are taught and used by Judo players--are superb techniques that have the same purpose, namely controlling the opponent without injuring him. In this shared sensibility, both competition judo and competition aikido have been derived from the essence of the ancient schools of jujutsu and developed in to modern, competitive sports.
From both an educational and historical point of view, aikido has a meaning and content which is inferior to neither kendo nor judo. Generally speaking, few people understand that. The position of aikido within Japanese budo also is not well understood. This treatise will provide a summary of these points in order to clarify the situation.
The Distinctive Features of Budo and the System of Jujutsu Training
What are the distinctive features of Japanese Budo? They are surely matters of spirit and philosophy. It has come to be said quite often that if we diligently develop our waza, our minds and spirits (kokoro) will be improved. Since ancient times, this budo shugyo, or martial arts training and apprenticeship, has proceeded from "techniques" (waza) to the "Way" (michi). The aphorism, "The act of perfecting our waza is equal to and achieves that act of perfecting our minds," applies in its entirety to modern competition, as competition rightly engaged in helps us to perfect our waza, and so our minds. But a more thorough consideration of the distinctive features of budo and its philosophy is necessary here.
It has been handed down to this generation that the secret principle of martial arts techniques in kenjutsu (cf, The Book of the Five Rings) or in jujutsu (cf, The Heavenly Scroll of Kito Ryu Jujutsu) is to study thoroughly the principles of the arts so that we will ultimately arrive at "no posture" (mugamae)--that is, we will develop true natural posture (shizen hontai). In the same way that thoroughly mastering the principles of the arts leads the body to mugamae, such mastery leads the soul to mushin, which is often termed "no heart," or "the quietude of spirit". Although there are various terms for mushin, such as the unmoving heart, the non-living heart, the soft and pliable heart, and the every-day heart, they all mean exactly the same thing. And arriving at this state of mushin is congruent with the goals of the religious and moral systems that have existed in all eras and in all places.
The deep secret of ancient jujutsu is embodied in the saying, "True natural posture is the manifestation of mushin. Control strength through gentleness. These are the principles of jujutsu." Master Jigoro Kano (1860-1938), the founder of Kodokan Judo, well explained the subtleties behind this principle when he formulated his Principles of Judo--judo meaning gentleness--so that the original jujutsu principle would be understandable to the people of the current day. He did this by analyzing this single jujutsu principle quoted above, and dividing it into three subsidiary principles.
The principle of natural body (shizentai no ri), which concerns posture. This is a natural, unrestricted posture from which it is possible to attack and defend, adapting to any kind of assault.
The principle of gentleness (ju no ri), which concerns the position of defense. It says, do not oppose the offensive power of any kind of antagonist with force. Rather, render that force ineffective by moving your body out of the way (taisabaki).
The principle of breaking balance (kuzushi no ri), which concerns the position of attack. This says to go and build a chance of winning by taking advantage of the breaking of your opponent's balance or by adhering to his body.
I have taught both the kata and randori training methods together, as a unified system of practice which can help the student to understand each technique in light of the three principles listed above. I have also pointed out in my teaching that the nage-waza and katame-waza belong to randori training, while the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza for the most part belong to kata training.
Jujutsu, which had techniques for hand to hand combat, studied "true power." In order for each us to experience personally the "core principles of the martial arts," we must not stop at the mere, repetitious practice of kata. Randori and sparing help to lead us closer to both the core principles of the martial arts and the true power that they generate by letting us experience the techniques studied in kata as they were meant to be performed: against a smart, resisting, and aggressive opponent. As an added benefit, randori training leads to an indispensable and highly prized sense of security. We have to admire the foresight of Master Kano for having expounded and promoted the benefits of randori training.
In reflecting on the evolution of Kodokan judo over the past century, one notes that those atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza that belong to just kata training have lagged behind those nage-waza and katame-waza that belong to randori as well as kata training. The gap separating them is large. I suggest the following reasons for this differential. First, a systematic classification and arrangement of materials relating to the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza has not been made. Second, an analysis of the characteristics of the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza, on the basis of the principles of judo, has not been performed. That is, these techniques are largely thought of only in terms of their original, bloodthirsty jujutsu interpretations. Third, a systematic method of practice for the atemi-waza and the kansetsu-waza has not yet been established. Although there were important categories of atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza in each of the jujutsu schools of the Edo Period (1603-1867), after the Meiji Restoration in 1868 these categories of techniques became formalized and staid, and their vitality wasted away.
It was during this time of general decline that Daito-ryu Aikijujutsu was revived, first by Takeda Sogaku (1860-1943) and then by Morihei Ueshiba,who was Takeda's leading disciple and the man who would succeed Takeda as the head of aikido. Daito-ryu was a school of jujutsu that had been handed down for many generations in the old Aizu prefecture and was justly praised by Master Kano. Kano's praise was natural, as it takes genius to see genius. Indeed, the achievements Kano and Ueshiba are, in the annals of Japanese budo, stupendous. Kano's work as a martial artist is more well know, but Ueshiba, who was an especially pious person, expanded our understanding of the limits of enlightenment and of the unity of god and man. He also changed the name of the art from aikijujutsu to aikido, established a dojo in Tokyo in the first years of the Showa period (1925-1989), and propagated aikido both in Japan and around the world.
It is the case, though, that the method of training used in aikido today is not only based upon the practices of long ago, but is indeed just about unchanged from what was done back then. If we consider the matter from the standpoint of an up-to-date education in budo, however, a system of randori practice ought to be added and should be based upon a method of training that incorporates both kata and randori. When one is young it is important for one's budo training to pass through rigorous bodily and spiritual ordeals in randori and, further, tournaments. And as for the vast array of techniques that cannot be incorporated into randori training, the profound martial arts principles embodied in those techniques can be--must be--mastered thoroughly through the practice of kata. In this way, one may develop one's body to the wonderful state known as mugamae or shizentai, and thence through further exertions reach the ascetic practice of mushin. This is "the Way" for the practitioner of austerities.
When we compare the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza with the nage-waza and katame-waza, we note that the element of a feat of strength is minimal. That is, the former require less power than the latter. For this reason too, randori is needed to impose rigor. The practice of kata, as a lifelong physical discipline, is, however, an appropriate method of practice for older people.
Through the short treatise below, I want to elucidate historically and through the principles of the martial arts the indispensability of both kata and randori in any aikido training system.
Budo is not the only art that aims at mastery of the body. Others such as those on land or in the water or those games in which a ball is used all attain proficiency by repetition of trial and error. People who have become masters, experts and champions have spent long months and years practising. They are people who well understand perseverance and who practice diligently. Their practice methods, of which there is an infinite variety, bear the stamp of their respective personalities and characters. The practice methods which excel in any given art clear if we objectify real capabilities by way of competition. Budo is no exception. The historical and developmental circumstances of Budo, however, are different from those in other arts.
It goes without saying that sports using a ball were devised from systems of recreational pastimes. Land and water sports were pragmatically designed as a means of physical exertion in periods of cultural decline. The people who excelled in these skills occupied a superior position in life. In that sense, Budo is the same. Because the technical contents of Budo contains an element of danger, however, problems remained. In order to demonstrate the validity of the occasion when a fight was held, techniques were esteemed to the extent that they had the power to kill and maim. The saying "necessity is the mother of invention" can be applied to the martial arts.
When we consider the history of the development of Budo, its style and content went through changes according to the times and patterns of life. At the beginning of the 17th century, the establishment of the Tokugawa bakafu completely halted a long period of war. Both kenjutsu and jujutsu aimed at being self defence martial arts during the period of peace. That is to say, research progressed from hand-to-hand combat techniques wearing armour to hand-to-hand combat wearing ordinary clothes. It is said that kenjutsu developed into IAI and jujutsu developed into IDORI, that is into sitting techniques (suwari-waza).
Moreover, the sense of values in bujutsu changed greatly. The martial arts that had formerly embraced the doctrine of supreme victory on the battlefield became KYOIKU BUDO, educational BUDO, in order to promote the refinement of the warriors. That is, the thinking that martial arts training proceeds from waza to the Way had changed. That Way was the Way of the Warrior (Bushido) which was founded on the religious beliefs of Confucianism, Buddhism and Shinto. The influence of this refinement was expressed on the face of the martial arts too. It is reported that in kenjutsu the stated ideal was no sword (the record of Kenjutsu Theory for the Shin-kage School), while in jujutsu the stated ideal was not to kill in the art (The Scroll of Preparedness of the Yoshin School) or avoid being struck, but do not strike; avoid being cut, but do not cut (The Oral Tradition of the Daito School of Aikijujutsu). That is to say, the spirit of killing and wounding were disavowed because the techniques for throwing or restraining, and thereby controlling an opponent developed tremendously.
At any rate, because Budo was in the ultimate position of standing at the cross-roads of life and death, instructors emphasized strength in the conviction that one need not fear death. Because that conviction was treated as a secret technique and secret formulas in the age of closed feudal classes, society was divided into many antagonistic schools. But martial arts as they should be welcomed the Meiji Restoration and made a brand new start.
The pioneer who modernised the feudal era schools of bujutsu and brought them to life in the midst of modern education was Master Kano. When I say that he modernised ancient bujutsu, what I mean is that he categorised and arranged the techniques so that they transcended schools. The main feature of this rearrangement was to organise and competitise the major techniques according to the form of combat so as to make tournaments (shiai) possible. Further, even with regard to the idea of education, Kano philosophically and ethically examined the ancient schools, which were being resisted by their enemies, individual beliefs and creeds. While he regarded the ancient schools as being based on the thoughts of Confucianism, Buddhism and Shintoism, he regarded the individual beliefs and creeds of the ancient schools as the Way to educate all of mankind. Master Kano stated that Jujutsu, because it was a martial art that had long had as its main purpose the simple issue of victory or defeat, does not comport with the spirit of times after the Meiji Restoration. Judo, having examined winning and losing and having discovered the principles behind each, influences the art.
Furthermore, Judo is also a way to refine our spirit by using the Way of those principles. The phrase "the main purpose of jujutsu was the issue of victory or defeat" means that the first goal of jujutsu was nothing more than actual victory. Because jujutsu techniques have a dangerous and bloodthirsty nature, they are inappropriate in modern times. Judo, however, shows the deep significance that is embodied in the principles that are mentioned in the phrase "having examined winning and losing and having discovered the principles of each" and makes those principles into a Way for the evolution of magnanimous human beings. And the way to examine victory and defeat is to apply yourself diligently to both randori and kata without favouring one over the other.
Techniques learned through kata can be revitalised by randori
The method of practise traditionally used to ensure the safety of dangerous techniques was the kata system of practise. In ancient bujutsu, 99% of a practise was completed by kata alone. That is to say, in order to cope with an opponent's unlimited attacks, each response was practised by means of kata. That is the reason for the extreme number of kata in ancient jujutsu. For example in Tenjin Shinyo Ryu jujutsu there were 124 kata techniques, and there were over 10 ranho (literally unstructured captures). To become masterful in the practical applications of the techniques required innumerable months. Then someone would be challenged to go from kata to a violent shiai (literally street fight ) called tsujinage or tsujigiri. This gave life to kata and was the place to try to fit together objectively one's own real ability.
A martial art that has no rules is nothing but violence. Along with the perception of being prepared for death, one must participate in shiai. In the traditional writings there is a prohibition against shiai. Novices entering into shiai unpreparedly were admonished about losing their lives.
Times changed after the middle of the Edo period and shiai that caused injuries costing a life were rigidly proscribed. It was then decided that bujutsu training would be done from first to last only by kata. The bujutsu that lost the opportunity for shiai training showed signs of degeneration because it was impossible to experience personally the true power of the martial arts and the core of the principles of the arts. As a means of correcting this decline the bamboo sword practise in kenjutsu and free sparring practise (randori geiko) in jujutsu were invented.
For example, within kenjutsu in the middle of the Edo era, schools such as kempo-kaho were ridiculed. The ridicule was because these schools were revealed to have kata-only practises that made it easy to develop weak points. It is said that the rigor of bujutsu training was forgotten, that the training sank into easy-going ways, that real power was not sought, and that pretentious bombastic activity increased. In short, history reports that the sword kata of budo degenerated into the sword kata of the stage.
Kata practise is performed to avoid the ultimate power of the techniques. When we study by means of a sword or wooden sword, it is necessary to try to meet the moment of the ultimate clash through use of the bamboo sword practise, even though in nine cases out of ten we will be able to absorb the principles of the art, such as the principle of simultaneous strikes (ai-uchi), i.e. cutting the skin to cut the meat, through kata.
From early on jujutsu also devised midare geiko (unstructured practise) training for the nage-waza and the katame-waza techniques that occur in the final moments of close-in hand to hand fighting. On the basis of this kind of practise, Master Kano completed his randori system of training during and after the Meiji period. This system is modern competition judo.
Randori practise is something that is done to give life to the real power of those techniques that were learned through kata. That is to say, randori provides the power to complete a painted dragon by filling in the eyes. The synthesised martial arts techniques of the old jujutsu schools, however, were quite varied and had numerous styles of hand to hand combat. Thus, it is impossible to incorporate all of these techniques into a system of randori training. Accordingly, I have brought together the important parts of the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza, and the organisation of another system of randori training is the subject that remains before us.
Jujutsu requires two systems of randori training
To begin with, jujutsu, of whatever kind, is for protecting yourself against the attacks of an opponent. Kenjutsu protects a person by use of a sword, and jitte-jutsu protects a person by use of a jitte, which is a short metal truncheon. Jujutsu protects a person without using anything at all. Moreover, jujutsu must be able to protect a person from an opponent's attack encountered at any time or place. In other words, in order to cope with an opponent's unlimited and unqualified attack without using a weapon, jujutsu made avoiding the brunt of an attack by the use of agile movements the number one priority. As it has been taught from ancient times, The secret principle of jujutsu is moving your body out of the way (taisabaki).
When we analyse the essence of attacks, they fall into two general categories:
An opponent from close in tries to topple (taosu) or restrain (osaeru) you by using his legs and hips.
An opponent from distance tries to strike, lunge at, or kick you, or with a weapon tries to cut or stab you.
Whichever situation it is, you must protect yourself completely by using taisabaki against the strong points of the attack. You must avoid the attack by using the speed of locomotive power. The secret principle of jujutsu, true natural posture (shizen hontai or mugamae), was developed on the base of this taisabaki and applies to all techniques. The system of randori practise that Master Kano formulated is for the situations described in point 1 above. It is the category of nage-waza and katame-waza where from close in you apply a waza at the collar and sleeve of a Japanese style judo jacket. The system of randori practise where you avoid your opponent's attack from a distance (as in point 2 above) and apply a technique is comprised of the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza. In both categories there is a need to establish a system of randori training.
When we look at the history of budo, it is recorded that there were 718 schools of kenjutsu and 179 schools of jujutsu. Comparing kenjutsu to jujutsu, the former used to have far more schools, but because the form of kenjutsu combat was simply sword against sword it was possible to modernise kenjutsu successfully so as to be able to have competitive shiai simply by collecting the various schools into one form of combat. From a practical point of view, however, it is impossible for jujutsu to receive sufficient training in the practical applications of the techniques through one form of combat. At the very least it is necessary to have two kinds of practise for the two kinds of situations described in points 1 and 2 above.
Once in 1926 Master Kano discussed in a radio broadcast the subject of Judo of old and the Judo of the future, and in the next year in an address to his students he remarked as follows: "I think that there must be a method of randori and shiai that includes the atemi-waza, provided that we devise it gradually and only after thorough investigation. That system, however, is not as easy as the ones in which the relative merits are decided by throwing (nage) or restraining (osae) an opponent." The randori and shiai training that would include the atemi-waza was contemplated by Master Kano, as we have learned from this quotation, but it was not realised during his lifetime.
At that time I entered the dojo of my honoured teacher, Morihei Ueshiba, and there were incentives there for me to advance in my research on the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza. Since that time I have had 50 years of trial and error experience with the old schools of jujutsu that have survived into the present era. I founded an aikido club at Waseda University in 1958, and it was at that time that aikido was introduced as a kind of proper scientific physical training which recognised on the condition that it be a style of aikido brought to completion in competition. Since that time, the students and I have, as one group, successfully concentrated on the perfection of the system of aiki-randori. This perfection, however, further awaits the cooperation of many people over long years so as to teach the more than 250 years of history in competition kendo or the 100 years of history in competition jujutsu. Various knotty problems accompany changing bujutsu into a competitive martial art.
This competisation, as the way that budo should be, however, is a most appropriate subject of study authorized by the professionals. The reason for this is that through competisation we are able to build on the spirit of freedom from danger, objectify ability, progress in our own self-examination through our reflection in others, and expand without limit the circle by way of making friendship into the profound harmony of budo.
Competisation alone allows one to master the techniques that are within a fixed category, and it is impossible to study extensively the techniques and forms of combat that cannot be incorporated into that category. When competition lapses into one-sided inversion, however, it will deteriorate? The thing to offset this deleterious tendency is kata practise. The special character of budo is that it is the very training that does not tend to abandon either randori or kata.
A training course for Aiki-randori
In organising a training course for aiki-randori, two points particularly warrant attention. First is the safety of the atemi-waza and the kansetsu-waza. Second is the relationship between kata and randori. To begin with, the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza have to date been excluded from judo-randori because they can be dangerous. What kind of guarantee of safety is there for practising randori, not to mention shiai, that incorporates these techniques? When we carefully consider the atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza historically and fundamentally, we find two characteristics:
The atemi-waza control an opponent by hitting, thrusting into or kicking the physiological weak points of the body (the vital areas), and the kansetsu-waza control an opponent by inflicting a sprain or dislocation on a joint. That is to say, these techniques were divised with the purpose of maiming or killing.
The atemi-waza topple an opponent by grasping the mechanical weak points of his body (the principle of kuzushi, breaking balance) and pushing him in one direction, while the kansetsu-waza restrain an opponent with a minimum of force by utilizing the limits of joint movement.
To date only the first characteristics generally has been emphasised while the second has been lost to sight. The techniques of aiki-randori were arranged and developed from physical training basis to regulate the first characteristic and promote the second one. That is, I have selected the forms of hand to hand combat in which an unarmed person defends himself against a person armed with a dagger (rubber) and in which shiai are conducted by way of specially determined refereeing regulations. In this fashion, the important categories of atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza that existed in old style jujutsu can be revived as a new budo within modern physical training.
Next, it has thus far been thought that kata and randori are separated from each other, and it has even been said that to cultivate real power randori alone is fine. Taking a lesson from history of jujutsu, which gathered into a unitary course of training so as to master thoroughly the spirit of atemi-waza and the kansetsu-waza. Kata and randori were made so as not to be divided.
The training course for aiki-randori is divided into 5 levels, aside from the preparatory exercises:
Fundamental movements (kihon dosa)
Fundamental techniques (kihon waza)
The system of breaking away (ridatsu ho)
The system of control (seigyo ho)
The system of randori (randori ho)
Steps 1 through 4 comprise the so-called kata training. Step 5 alone is randori training. Further, kata training can be distinguished into application practise (kakari geiko) and energetic practise (hikitate geiko).
Training course for aiki-randori
I. Preparatory exercises: to tune the body and forestall injuries
Light callisthenics, standing
Flexibility and toning callisthenics, sitting
Falling (ukemi) practise: back, front, side
II. Fundamental movements (kihon dosa): fundamental principles induced from old style jujutsu
The principle of the natural body (shizentai no ri) (concerning posture): the posture for unrestricted attack and defence, and the method of movement
Mugamae (standing and sitting), migigamae (right posture), hidarigamae (left posture)
The method of unsoku-ho (footwork) and the method of shikko-ho (moving on one's knee)
The practise of moving in 8 directions
The principle of gentleness (ju no ri), which concerns defence: the method of defence that renders the force of an opponent's attack ineffective
Avoiding and accepting a thrust
Flowing gently with a force which you have grasped and with which you cooperate
Eye contact (metsuke) and proper distance (ma-ai), joining your hand swords (tegatana) together
Method of avoidance (kawashi-kata), movement in six directions
Method of accepting (uke-kata) with the hands pressed together as during prayer (gassho no uke)
Method of flowing (nagashi-kata): the five hand sword movements
The principle of breaking balance (kuzushi no ri) (concerning attacks): a method of building a chance of victory by taking advantage of breaking an opponent's balance or of adhering to his body
Controlling the elbow
high level (jodan)
low level (gedan)
Controlling the wrist
high level (jodan)
low level (gedan)
Controlling the chin
Avoiding an opponent s cuts or stabs from a distance
Flowing with a force which you have grasped and with which you cooperate
III. Fundamental techniques (kihon waza): techniques categorised from atemi-waza and kansetsu-waza of the old schools of jujutsu
The 5 atemi-waza: shomen-ate, aigamae-ate, gyakugamae-ate, gedan-ate and ushiro-ate
The 14 kansetsu-waza
Six elbow techniques (hiji-waza): 2 hip locks (koshi-gatame), 2 side locks (waki-gatame) and 2 arm locks (ude-garami)
Eight wrist techniques (tekubi-waza): 4 wrist twists (kote-hineri) and 4 wrist turns (kote-gaeshi)
IV. The method of breaking away (ridatsu ho): breaking away and practically applying the atemi-waza when grasped by an opponent
Breaking away and practically applying the atemi-waza when the wrist, arm, collar or sleeve are grasped, when held bodily, or when grasped from the front, back, left or right.
V. The method of control (seigyo ho): controlling an opponent and practically applying the kansetsu-waza when grasped
Controlling an opponent and practically applying the kansetsu-waza when wrist, arm, collar, or sleeve are grasped, when held bodily or when grasped from the front, back, left or right.
VI. The method of randori (randori ho): avoiding and controlling the cuts and thrusts of a distant opponent
The kata for randori: the 17 techniques (ju-nana hon no kata). This is the basic kata that shows the process for avoiding and controlling a distant opponent who strikes, lunges, or kick, or who cuts and thrusts with a dagger (tanto). This kata alone, passing through the stages of kakari-geiko and hikitate-geiko, is able to progress to randori-geiko.
